Mechanical Response of Segmental Tunnels Subjected to Reverse Faulting: Physical and Numerical Modeling

Document Type : Original Article

Author

Civil Engineering Faculty, Imam Hossein University, Tehran, Iran

Abstract

Underground tunnels crossing active reverse faults are highly vulnerable to permanent ground deformation, which may significantly affect their structural integrity and operational performance. This study investigates the behavior of segmental tunnels subjected to reverse-fault displacement using an integrated approach combining centrifuge testing and three-dimensional finite element modeling. The numerical model developed in ABAQUS was verified against centrifuge experiments, showing excellent agreement with the experimental observations, with prediction errors of only 2% for maximum ground settlement and 4% for maximum tunnel crown displacement. Following model validation, a comprehensive parametric study was conducted to evaluate the influence of reverse fault angle (60°, 75°, and 85°), soil stiffness, tunnel overburden (10-20 m), soil friction angle, and tunnel diameter (5-10 m) on tunnel performance. The results demonstrate that increasing the reverse fault angle substantially intensifies ground settlement, tunnel crown displacement, tunnel S-shaped deformation, and lining ring rotation while expanding the fault-affected zone. Increasing soil stiffness reduces ground settlement but promotes more complete upward propagation of fault rupture and increases localized tunnel deformation. Increasing tunnel overburden decreases both ground settlement and tunnel displacement by dissipating fault-induced deformation within the surrounding soil mass. In contrast, changes in the soil friction angle alone have only a negligible influence on tunnel behavior. Furthermore, increasing tunnel diameter has a limited effect on global settlement but reduces the plastic strain concentration above the tunnel and modifies the fault rupture path.

Keywords

Main Subjects

References

  1. Hashash, Y. M. A., Hook, J. J., Schmidt, B., I-Chiang Yao, J. Seismic design and analysis of underground structures. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 2001; 16: 247–293. doi:10.1016/S0886-7798(01)00051-7.
  2. Kiani, M., Akhlaghi, T., Ghalandarzadeh, A. Experimental modeling of segmental shallow tunnels in alluvial affected by normal faults. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 2016; 51: 108–119. doi:10.1016/j.tust.2015.10.005.
  3. Argyroudis, S. A., Pitilakis, K. D. Seismic fragility curves of shallow tunnels in alluvial deposits. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 2012; 35: 1–12. doi:10.1016/j.soildyn.2011.11.004.
  4. Bottero, A., Negre, R., Pastor, J., Turgeman, S. Finite element method and limit analysis theory for soil mechanics problems. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, 1980; 22: 131–149. doi:10.1016/0045-7825(80)90055-9.
  5. Roth, W. H., Scott, R. F., Austin, I. Centrifuge modeling of fault propagation through alluvial soils. Geophysical Research Letters, 1981; 8: 561–564. doi:10.1029/GL008i006p00561.
  6. Dowding, C. H., Rozen, A. Damage to Rock Tunnels from Earthquake Shaking. Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering Division, 1978; 104: 175–191. doi:10.1061/AJGEB6.0000580.
  7. Cole, D. A., Lade, P. V. Influence Zones in Alluvium Over Dip‐Slip Faults. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 1984; 110: 599–615. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1984)110:5(599).
  8. Burridge, P. B., Scott, R. F., Hall, J. F. Centrifuge Study of Faulting Effects on Tunnel. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 1989; 115: 949–967. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1989)115:7(949).
  9. Twiss, R. J., Moores, E. M. Structural Geology. 1st ed. San Francisco (CA): W. H. Freeman; 1992.
  10. Bray, J. D., Seed, R. B., Seed, H. B. Analysis of Earthquake Fault Rupture Propagation through Cohesive Soil. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 1994; 120: 562–580. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1994)120:3(562).
  11. Beer, G., Poulsen, B. A. Efficient numerical modelling of faulted rock using the boundary element method. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences & Geomechanics Abstracts, 1994; 31: 485–506. doi:10.1016/0148-9062(94)90151-1.
  12. Fotoohi, K., Mitri, H. S. Non-linear fault behaviour near underground excavations — a boundary element approach. International Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics, 1996; 20: 173–190. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-9853(199603)20:3<173::AID-NAG814>3.0.CO;2-H.
  13. Asakura, T., Sato, Y. Mountain tunnels damaged by the Hyogoken-Nanbu Earthquake and relevant repair methods. Quarterly Report of RTRI, 1998; 39: 9–16.
  14. Allen, C. R., Cluff, L. S. Active Faults in Dam Foundations: An Update. In: Proceedings of the 12th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering; 2000; Auckland, New Zealand. p. 1–8.
  15. Ulusay, R., Aydan, O., Hamada, M. The behaviour of structures built on active fault zones: Examples from the recent earthquakes of Turkey. STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING / EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING, 2002; 19: 149–167. doi:10.2208/jsceseee.19.149s.
  16. Kontogianni, V., Stiros, S. Earthquakes and Seismic Faulting: Effects on Tunnels. Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences, 2003; 12: 1–27.
  17. Jeon, S., Kim, J., Seo, Y., Hong, C. Effect of a fault and weak plane on the stability of a tunnel in rock—a scaled model test and numerical analysis. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 2004; 41: 658–663. doi:10.1016/j.ijrmms.2004.03.115.
  18. Lee, J. W., Hamada, M. An experimental study on earthquake fault rupture propagation through a sandy soil deposit. Doboku Gakkai Ronbunshu, 2005; 2005: 780_1–780_13. doi:10.2208/jscej.2005.780_1.
  19. Lin, M.-L., Chung, C.-F., Jeng, F.-S. Deformation of overburden soil induced by thrust fault slip. Engineering Geology, 2006; 88: 70–89. doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2006.08.004.
  20. Johansson, J., Konagai, K. Fault induced permanent ground deformations: Experimental verification of wet and dry soil, numerical findings’ relation to field observations of tunnel damage and implications for design. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 2007; 27: 938–956. doi:10.1016/j.soildyn.2007.01.007.
  21. Gazetas, G., Pecker, A., Faccioli, E., Paolucci, R., Anastasopoulos, I. Preliminary design recommendations for dip-slip fault–foundation interaction. Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering, 2008; 6: 677–687. doi:10.1007/s10518-008-9082-5.
  22. Kun, M., Onargan, T. Influence of the fault zone in shallow tunneling: A case study of Izmir Metro Tunnel. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 2013; 33: 34–45. doi:10.1016/j.tust.2012.06.016.
  23. Oettle, N. K., Bray, J. D. Fault Rupture Propagation through Previously Ruptured Soil. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 2013; 139: 1637–1647. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000919.
  24. Baziar, M. H., Nabizadeh, A., Jung Lee, C., Yi Hung, W. Centrifuge modeling of interaction between reverse faulting and tunnel. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 2014; 65: 151–164. doi:10.1016/j.soildyn.2014.04.008.
  25. Baziar, M. H., Nabizadeh, A., Mehrabi, R., Lee, C. J., Hung, W. Y. Evaluation of underground tunnel response to reverse fault rupture using numerical approach. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 2016; 83: 1–17. doi:10.1016/j.soildyn.2015.11.005.
  26. Zhao, K., Janutolo, M., Barla, G., Chen, G. 3D simulation of TBM excavation in brittle rock associated with fault zones: The Brenner Exploratory Tunnel case. Engineering Geology, 2014; 181: 93–111. doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2014.07.002.
  27. Liu, X., Li, X., Sang, Y.-L., Lin, L.-L. Experimental study on normal fault rupture propagation in loose strata and its impact on mountain tunnels. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 2015; 49: 417–425. doi:10.1016/J.TUST.2015.05.010.
  28. Ghalandarzadeh, A., Moradi, M., Ashtiani, M., Kiani, M., Rojhani, M. Centrifuge model tests of fault rupture effect on some geotechnical structures. Japanese Geotechnical Society Special Publication, 2016; 2: 212–216. doi:10.3208/jgssp.VPS-06.
  29. Varnosefaderani, M. G., Golshani, A., Majidian, S. Analysis of cylindrical tunnels under combined primary near fault seismic excitations and subsequent reverse fault rupture. Acta Geodynamica et Geomaterialia, 2017; 14: 5–26. doi:10.13168/AGG.2016.0024.
  30. Ashtiani, M., Ghalandarzadeh, A., Mahdavi, M., Hedayati, M. Centrifuge modeling of geotechnical mitigation measures for shallow foundations subjected to reverse faulting. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 2017; 55: 1130–1143. doi:10.1139/cgj-2017-0093.
  31. Garcia, F. E., Bray, J. D. Distinct element simulations of earthquake fault rupture through materials of varying density. Soils and Foundations, 2018; 58: 986–1000. doi:10.1016/j.sandf.2018.05.009.
  32. Manouchehrian, A., Cai, M. Numerical modeling of rockburst near fault zones in deep tunnels. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 2018; 80: 164–180. doi:10.1016/j.tust.2018.06.015.
  33. Yang, S., Mavroeidis, G. P. Bridges crossing fault rupture zones: A review. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 2018; 113: 545–571. doi:10.1016/j.soildyn.2018.03.027.
  34. Yeganeh Khaksar, R., Moradi, M., Ghalandarzadeh, A. Response of buried oil and gas pipelines subjected to reverse faulting: A novel centrifuge-finite element approach. Scientia Iranica, 2018; 25: 2501–2516. doi:10.24200/sci.2017.4214.
  35. Cai, Q. P., Peng, J. M., Ng, C. W. W., Shi, J. W., Chen, X. X. Centrifuge and numerical modelling of tunnel intersected by normal fault rupture in sand. Computers and Geotechnics, 2019; 111: 137–146. doi:10.1016/j.compgeo.2019.03.010.
  36. Tali, N., Lashkaripour, G. R., Hafezi Moghadas, N., Ghalandarzadeh, A. Centrifuge modeling of reverse fault rupture propagation through single-layered and stratified soil. Engineering Geology, 2019; 249: 273–289. doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2018.12.021.
  37. Wang, J., Liu, H., Liu, H., Zou, Y. Centrifuge model study on the seismic responses of shield tunnel. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 2019; 92: 103036. doi:10.1016/j.tust.2019.103036.
  38. Sabbagh, M., Ghalandarzadeh, A. Centrifugal modeling of continuous shallow tunnels at active normal faults intersection. Transportation Geotechnics, 2020; 22: 100325. doi:10.1016/j.trgeo.2020.100325.
  39. Sabbagh, M., Ghalandarzadeh, A. Numerical modelings of continuous shallow tunnels subject to reverse faulting and its verification through a centrifuge. Computers and Geotechnics, 2020; 128: 103813. doi:10.1016/j.compgeo.2020.103813.
  40. Tohidifar, H., Moosavi, M., Jafari, M. K. Centrifuge Modelling of the Reverse Faulting-Tunnel Interaction in Granular Alluvial Soil Considering Tunnel Flexible Joints. In: 4th European Conference on Physical Modelling in Geotechnics – (ECPMG); 2020; Lulea, Sweden. p. 1–4.
  41. Shen, C., Bo, J., Qi, W., Zhang, X., Huang, J., Qiao, F. Analysis of the surface rupture process of strong earthquakes based on centrifuge tests. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 2020; 136: 106239. doi:10.1016/j.soildyn.2020.106239.
  42. Agalianos, A., Anastasopoulos, I. Numerical analysis of surface foundation subjected to strike–slip faulting: model boundaries, pre-softening volumetric response, parametric study. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 2021; 151: 106979. doi:10.1016/j.soildyn.2021.106979.
  43. Han, X., Li, W. Numerical Analysis on the Structure Type and Mechanical Response of Tunnel Crossing Active Reverse Fault. Geofluids, 2021; 2021: 5513042. doi:10.1155/2021/5513042.
  44. Nabizadeh, A., Mojtahedi, A. S. Centrifuge modeling of normal faulting and underground tunnel in sandy soil deposit. Soils and Rocks, 2021; 44: e2021059520. doi:10.28927/sr.2021.059520.
  45. Yao, C., Takemura, J., Zhang, J. Centrifuge modeling of single pile-shallow foundation interaction in reverse fault. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 2021; 141: 106538. doi:10.1016/j.soildyn.2020.106538.
  46. Firouzeh, S. H., Shirmohammadi, S., Zanganeh Ranjbar, P., Payan, M., Jamsawang, P., Keawsawasvong, S. Upper Bound Finite Element Limit Analysis of the Response of Shallow Foundations Subjected to Dip-Slip Reverse Fault Rupture Outcrop. Transportation Infrastructure Geotechnology, 2024; 11: 3256–3292. doi:10.1007/s40515-024-00406-6.
  47. Firouzeh, S. H., Payan, M., Chenari, R. J., Shafiee, A., Senetakis, K. Efficiency of various mitigation schemes in the alleviation of the destructive effect of reverse dip-slip fault rupture on surface and embedded shallow foundations using upper bound finite element limit analysis. Computers and Geotechnics, 2022; 142: 104548. doi:10.1016/j.compgeo.2021.104548.
  48. Nalkiashari, L. A., Firouzeh, S. H., Payan, M., Jamshidi Chenari, R., Shafiee, A. Interaction of rigid shallow foundation with dip-slip normal fault rupture outcrop: effective parameters and retrofitting strategies. Computers and Geotechnics, 2022; 149: 104866. doi:10.1016/j.compgeo.2022.104866.
  49. Su, R., Su, Q., Dong, M., He, C., Zheng, Y., Wang, X., Pei, Y. Centrifugal model test study on deformation characteristics of deep, thick fillings in giant karst cave tunnels under different construction processes. Transportation Geotechnics, 2023; 42: 101068. doi:10.1016/j.trgeo.2023.101068.
  50. Wang, Z., Zhao, M., Huang, J., Zhong, Z., Du, X. Numerical Modeling of Reverse Fault Rupture and Its Impact on Mountain Tunnels. Journal of Earthquake Engineering, 2023; 27: 2481–2505. doi:10.1080/13632469.2022.2121332.
  51. Amini, V., Khoshrou, S. H., Kiani, M. Modeling the Behavior of Shallow Continuous Tunnels Subjected to Active Dip-Slip Faults. Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, 2025; 43: 123. doi:10.1007/s10706-024-02979-y.
  52. Amini, V., Khoshrou, S. H. The use of machine learning to assess failure risks of shallow continuous tunnels subjected to active dip-slip faults. CIM Journal, 2026; 17: 29–47. doi:10.1080/19236026.2025.2603168.
  53. Aghamolaei, M., Ghavami, S., Saeedi Azizkandi, A. Centrifuge and 3D FEM Modeling of the Effect of Tunneling in Fault Zone in Reverse Fault-Foundation Interaction. Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, 2025; 43: 222. doi:10.1007/s10706-025-03200-4.
  54. Vasef, M., Marefat, M. S., Ghalandarzadeh, A., Sun, P. P. Shaking table test of a moment resisting reinforced concrete frame with restricted ductility. Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Vibration, 2026; 25: 517–535. doi:10.1007/s11803-026-2382-4.
  55. Wang, X., Xie, L., Zeng, D., Wang, T., Li, A. Resilient-based seismic design of a seismically isolated multitower-connected building. Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Vibration, 2026; 25: 579–589. doi:10.1007/s11803-026-2393-1.
  56. Wang, Y., Chen, K., Li, Z., Dong, W., Lu, X. Numerical study and sensitivity analysis on seismic performance of steel pipe-aeolian sand recycled concrete columns. Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Vibration, 2026; 25: 411–430. doi:10.1007/s11803-024-2271-7.
  57. Zhou, G., Fang, X., Shen, C., Chen, Z., Bao, T., Yao, Z. Shaking table test for microbial coral sand pile composite foundations and coral sand foundations. Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Vibration, 2026; 25: 379–391. doi:10.1007/s11803-026-2386-0.
  58. Dassault Systèmes. ABAQUS. Version 2021. Providence (RI): Dassault Systèmes; 2021.
  59. Fadaee, M., Ezzatyazdi, P., Anastasopoulos, I., Gazetas, G. Mitigation of reverse faulting deformation using a soil bentonite wall: Dimensional analysis, parametric study, design implications. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 2016; 89: 248–261. doi:10.1016/j.soildyn.2016.04.007.
  60. Asgari, A., Forcellini, D. Site response analyses of a multi-layered liquefiable soil with 3D nonlinear numerical modeling. Scientific Reports, 2026; doi:10.1038/s41598-026-64998-4.
  61. Asgari, A., Ravari, M. S., Sedighi Pouya, M. R., Forcellini, D. Seismic Performance of Stone Column and Geosynthetic-Encased Stone Column Groups in Liquefiable Sandy Soils. Buildings, 2026; 16: 3196. doi:10.3390/buildings16163196.
  62. Dassault Systèmes. ABAQUS/Explicit. Version 2021. Providence (RI): Dassault Systèmes; 2021.
  63. Shayanfar, J., Barros, J. A. O., Rezazadeh, M., Kafshgarkolaei, H. J. Enhancing the performance of heat-damaged rectangular RC columns using prestressed FRP confinement. Construction and Building Materials, 2025; 501: 144346. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2025.144346.
  64. Jafarian Kafshgarkolaei, H., Lotfollahi Yaghi, M. A., Mojtahedi, A. Dynamic Response of a Floating Transverse Beam due to Slamming with Considering Wagner Theory. Journal of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 2026; 56: 65–72. doi:10.22034/ceej.2023.56388.2256.

Files

History

  • Receive Date: 09 August 2026
  • Revise Date: 15 September 2026
  • Accept Date: 07 October 2026
  • First Publish Date: 07 October 2026

Share

How to cite

Statistics